Title Details

Notice of Web Site and Periodic Supplements for This Edition v

Preface xvii

Acknowledgements xxv

The Authors xxix

PART ONE PERSPECTIVES AND FOUNDATIONS 1

1 Overview of Higher Education Law 3

1.1. How Far the Law Reaches and How Loud It Speaks 3

1.2. Evolution of Higher Education Law 7

1.3. The Governance of Higher Education 9

1.3.1. Basic concepts and distinctions 9

1.3.2. Internal governance 12

1.3.3. External governance 13

1.4. Sources of Higher Education Law 16

1.4.1. Overview 16

1.4.2. External sources of law 16

1.4.3. Internal sources of law 20

1.4.4. The role of case law 23

1.5. The Public-Private Dichotomy 23

1.5.1. Overview 23

1.5.2. The state action doctrine 25

1.5.3. Other bases for legal rights in private institutions 33

1.6. Religion and the Public-Private Dichotomy 35

1.6.1. Overview 35

1.6.2. Religious autonomy rights of religious institutions and individuals 36

1.6.3. Government support for religious institutions 38

1.6.4. Religious autonomy rights of individuals in public postsecondary institutions 45

Selected Annotated Bibliography 49

2. Legal Planning and Dispute Resolution 57

2.1. Legal Liability 57

2.1.1. Overview 57

2.1.2. Types of liability 58

2.1.3. Agency law 58

2.1.4. Enforcement mechanisms 58

2.1.5. Remedies for legal violations 59

2.1.6. Avoiding legal liability 60

2.1.7. Treatment law and preventive law 60

2.2. Litigation in the Courts 66

2.2.1. Overview 66

2.2.2. Judicial remedies 68

2.2.3. Judicial (academic) deference 72

2.2.4. Managing litigation and the threat of litigation 77

2.3. Alternate Dispute Resolution 79

2.3.1. Overview 79

2.3.2. Types of ADR 80

2.3.3. Applications to colleges and universities 83

2.4. Institutional Management of Liability Risk 85

2.4.1 Overview and suggestions 85

2.4.2 Risk avoidance and risk control 86

2.4.3. Risk transfer 86

2.4.4. Risk retention 91

2.4.5. Legal limits on authority to transfer risk 92

2.5. The Relationship Between Law and Policy 94

Selected Annotated Bibliography 98

PART TWO THE COLLEGE, ITS GOVERNING BOARD, AND EMPLOYEES 103

3. The College and Its Trustees 105

3.1. The Question of Authority 105

3.1.1. Overview 105

3.1.2. Trustee authority 108

3.2. Institutional Tort Liability 109

3.2.1. Overview 109

3.2.2. Negligence 112

3.2.3. Educational malpractice 127

3.3. Institutional Contract Liability 128

3.4. Institutional Liability for Violating Federal Constitutional Rights (Section 1983 Liability) 132

Selected Annotated Bibliography 138

4. The College and Its Employees 142

4.1. Overview of Employment Relationships 142

4.2. Employment Contracts 144

4.2.1. Defi ning the contract 144

4.2.2. The at-will doctrine 145

4.3. Collective Bargaining 145

4.3.1. Overview 145

4.3.2. The public-private dichotomy in collective bargaining 146

4.3.3. Collective bargaining and antidiscrimination laws 146

4.4. Personal Liability of Employees 149

4.4.1. Overview 149

4.4.2. Tort liability 149

4.4.3. Contract liability 152

4.4.4. Constitutional liability (personal liability under Section 1983) 153

4.5. Employment Discrimination 159

4.5.1. Overview: The interplay of statutes, regulations, and constitutional protections 159

4.5.2. Sources of law 160

4.6. Affirmative Action 182

4.6.1. Overview 182

4.6.2. Affirmative action under Title VII 185

4.6.3. Affirmative action under the equal protection clause 188

4.7. Application of Nondiscrimination Laws to Religious Institutions 190

4.8. Faculty Academic Freedom and Freedom of Expression 196

4.8.1. General concepts and principles 196

4.8.2. Academic freedom in teaching 214

4.8.3. Academic freedom in religious colleges and universities 232

Selected Annotated Bibliography 235

PART THREE THE COLLEGE AND ITS STUDENTS 241

5. The Legal Status of Students 243

5.1. The Legal Status of Students 243

5.1.1. Overview 243

5.1.2 The age of majority 244

5.2. The Contractual Rights of Students 244

5.3. Student Academic Freedom 253

5.4. Students’ Legal Relationships with Other Students 262

5.5. Student Files and Records 269

5.5.1. Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) 269

5.5.2 State law 273

Selected Annotated Bibliography 278

6. Admissions and Financial Aid 280

6.1. Admissions 280

6.1.1. Basic legal requirements 280

6.1.2. Arbitrariness 281

6.1.3 The contract theory 283

6.1.4. The principle of nondiscrimination 284

6.1.5. Affirmative action programs 301

6.1.6. Readmission 327

6.2. Financial Aid 330

6.2.1. General principles 330

6.2.2. Federal programs 332

6.2.3. Nondiscrimination 336

6.2.4. Affirmative action in financial aid programs 338

6.2.5. Discrimination against nonresidents 343

6.2.6. Discrimination against aliens 349

Selected Annotated Bibliography 355

7. The Campus Community 359

7.1. Student Housing 359

7.1.1. Housing regulations 359

7.1.2. Searches and seizures 365

7.2. Campus Computer Networks 371

7.2.1. Freedom of speech 371

7.2.2. Liability issues 377

7.3. Campus Security 380

7.3.1. Security officers 380

7.3.2. Protecting students against violent crime 383

7.3.3. Federal statutes and campus security 387

7.4. Other Support Services 390

7.4.1. Overview 390

7.4.2. Health services 391

7.4.3. Services for students with disabilities 394

7.4.4. Services for international students 396

7.4.5. Legal services 398

Selected Annotated Bibliography 399

8. Academic Policies and Concerns 402

8.1. Overview 402

8.2. Awarding of Grades and Degrees 402

8.3. Sexual Harassment of Students by Faculty Members 410

8.4. Evaluating Students with Disabilities 426

8.4.1. Overview 426

8.4.2. The concept of disability 427

8.4.3. Notice and documentation of disabilities 430

8.4.4. Requests for programmatic or instructional accommodations 432

Selected Annotated Bibliography 438

9. The Disciplinary Process 441

9.1. Disciplinary and Grievance Systems 441

9.1.1. Overview 441

9.1.2. Establishment of systems 441

9.1.3. Codes of student conduct 443

9.1.4. Judicial systems 446

9.2. Disciplinary Rules and Regulations 451

9.2.1. Overview 451

9.2.2. Public institutions 451

9.2.3. Private institutions 453

9.2.4. Disciplining students with psychiatric illnesses 454

9.3. Procedures for Suspension, Dismissal, and Other Sanctions 456

9.3.1. Overview 456

9.3.2. Public institutions: Disciplinary sanctions 457

9.3.3. Public institutions: The legal distinction between disciplinary sanctions and academic sanctions 466

9.3.4. Private institutions 470

Selected Annotated Bibliography 474

10. Students’ Freedom of Expression 478

10.1. Student Protests and Freedom of Speech 478

10.1.1. Student free speech in general 478

10.1.2. The “public forum” concept 480

10.1.3. Regulation of student protest 486

10.1.4. Prior approval of protest activities 492

10.1.5. Posters and leaflets 493

10.1.6. Protests in the classroom 496

10.2. Speech Codes and the Problem of Hate Speech 498

10.2.1. Hate speech and the campus 498

10.2.2. The case law on hate speech and speech codes 499

10.2.3. Guidelines for dealing with hate speech on campus 506

Selected Annotated Bibliography 508

PART FOUR: THE COLLEGE AND ITS STUDENT ORGANIZATIONS 511

11. Student Organizations and Their Members 513

11.1. Student Organizations 513

11.1.1. The right to organize 513

11.1.2. The right not to join, or associate, or subsidize 519

11.1.3. Mandatory student activities fees 520

11.1.4. Principle of nondiscrimination 526

11.1.5. Religious activities 531

11.2. Fraternities and Sororities 538

11.2.1. Overview 538

11.2.2. Institutional recognition and regulation of fraternal organizations 539

11.2.3. Institutional liability for the acts of fraternal organizations 545

11.3. The Student Press 549

11.3.1. General principles 549

11.3.2. Mandatory student fee allocations to student publications 550

11.3.3. Permissible scope of institutional regulation 551

11.3.4. Obscenity 559

11.3.5. Libel 561

11.3.6. Obscenity and libel in private institutions 565

Selected Annotated Bibliography 565

12. Athletics 568

12.1. General Principles 568

12.2. Athletes’ Due Process Rights 569

12.3. Athletes’ Freedom of Speech 570

12.4. Pertinent Statutory Law 573

12.5. Athletic Scholarships 574

12.6. Sex Discrimination 578

12.7. Discrimination on the Basis of Disability 589

12.8. Drug Testing 591

12.9. Tort Liability for Athletic Injuries 596

Selected Annotated Bibliography 601

PART FIVE: THE COLLEGE AND THE OUTSIDE WORLD 605

13. Local and State Governments 607

13.1. Local Governments and the Local Community 607

13.1.1. Overview of local government authority 607

13.1.2. Community access to the college’s campus 611

13.1.3. Community activities of students 638

13.1.4. Zoning 640

13.1.5. Student voting in the community 643

13.2. State Government 648

13.2.1. Overview of state government authority 648

13.2.2. State provision of public postsecondary education 651

13.2.3. State chartering and licensure of private postsecondary institutions 653

13.2.4. Open meetings and public disclosure 657

13.2.5. Open records laws 661

13.2.6. State administrative procedure laws 667

Selected Annotated Bibliography 669

14. The Federal Government 672

14.1. Overview of Federal Government Authority 672

14.1.1. Federal constitutional powers over education 672

14.1.2. Federal regulation of postsecondary education 673

14.2. Copyright Law 675

14.2.1. Overview 675

14.2.2. The fair use doctrine 676

14.2.3. Performance rights 681

14.2.4. Liability for infringement 683

14.2.5. Licensing 687

14.2.6. Other copyright issues 687

14.3. Trademark Law 690

14.4. Antitrust Law 696

14.5. Americans with Disabilities Act 702

14.6. Laws Regulating Computer Network Communications 705

14.6.1. Overview 705

14.6.2. Computer statutes 706

14.6.3. General statutes 714

14.7. Federal Taxation of Postsecondary Education 718

14.7.1. Introduction and overview 718

14.7.2. Tax rules regarding students 719

14.8. Federal Aid-to-Education Programs 722

14.8.1. Functions and history 722

14.8.2. Legal structure of federal aid programs 723

14.9. Civil Rights Compliance 725

14.9.1. General considerations 725

14.9.2. Title VI 726

14.9.3. Title IX 735

14.9.4. Section 504 738

14.9.5. Coverage of unintentional discriminatory acts 741

14.10. Dealing with the Federal Government 744

14.10.1. Handling federal rule making and regulations 744

14.10.2. Obtaining information 748

Selected Annotated Bibliography 750

15. Private Entities 758

15.1. Education Associations 758

15.2. Accrediting Agencies 760

15.3. Athletic Associations and Conferences 762

15.3.1. Overview 762

15.3.2. Federal constitutional constraints 763

15.3.3. State statutes regulating athletic associations’ enforcement activities 766

15.3.4. Antitrust laws 768

15.3.5. Common law principles 771

15.3.6. Federal civil rights statutes 772

15.4. Private Business 780

15.4.1. Overview 780

15.4.2. Auxiliary enterprises 781

15.4.3. State noncompetition statutes 788

15.4.4. Federal antitrust law 790

Selected Annotated Bibliography 792

Appendix A. Constitution of the United States of America: Provisions of Particular Interest to Postsecondary Education 794

Cases Index 799

Statute Index 811

Subject Index 815