Title Details

James A. Jacobs is Principal Resource Scientist and Hydrogeologist at Clearwater Group.  He is a Fulbright Senior Scholar and co-author of four environmental books and has served as an expert in a variety of oil and gas valuation and environmental contamination cases.

Stephen M. Testa is the former Executive Officer of the California State Mining and Geology Board and past president of the American Geosciences Institute, American Institute of Professional Geologists, American Association of Petroleum Geologists, and Los Angeles Basin Geological Society.

Contents

Foreword

Acknowledgements

Chapter 1

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Cultural influences

1.3 Conventional versus unconventional resources

1.4 Well stimulation

1.4.1 Types of well stimulation technologies

1.4.2 Terminology

1.5 Hydraulic fracturing in the United States

1.6 Environmental considerations

1.6.1 Environmental Stewardship

1.6.2 The New Energy Landscape and Environmental Challenges

1.7 Exercises

1.8 References

2.0 Historic Development From Fracturing To Hydraulic Fracturing

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Explosives And Guns (1820s-1930s)

2.2.1 The Battle of Fredericksburg and the Roberts Petroleum Torpedo. Company

2.2.2 Well Casing Perforators

2.2.3 The First Perforating Guns

2.2.4 Bazooka Technology

2.2.5 Matrix Acidizing Treatment

2.2.6 The Sulphur King

2.2.7 Modern Age of Acidizing

2.3 The Birth Of The Petroleum Engineer (1940s-1950s)

2.3.1 The Hydrafac Process

2.4 Going Nuclear During Peak Oil (1960s-MID1970s)

2.4.1 Project Plowshare

2.4.2 Project Gasbuggy

2.4.3 Project Rulison and Project Rio Blanco

2.4.4 Project Bronco

2.4.5 Project Wagon Wheel

2.4.6 Former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) Program

2.4.7 Other Innovations

2.4.8 Peak Oil

2.5 The Rise Of The Unconventionals (mid1970s-present)

2.5.1 Horizontal Drilling

2.5.2 The Carter Years and the Role of the Feds

2.5.3 Recent Innovations in Fluids and Additives (2000-2010)

2.6 Exercises

2.7 References

3.0 Geology Of Unconventional Resources

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Oil Shale Nomenclature

3.3 Oil Shale Classification

3.4 Types Of Formations Based On Production

Shale Gas

Tight Natural Gas

Tight Oil

Coal Bed Natural Gas

3.5 Geology Of United States Shale Deposits

Green River Formation

Eastern Devonian-Mississippian Oil Shale Case Study

Specific Shale Plays

Barnett Shale

The Marcellus Shale

The Fayetteville Shale

The Haynesville Shale

The Woodford Shale

The Antrim Shale

The New Albany Shale

The Bakken Formation and Three Forks Formations

The Monterey Formation/Monterey Temblor

Geology of World Shale Deposits

3.6 The Role Of Natural Fractures

3.7 Exercises

3.8 References

4.0 Overview Of Drilling And Hydraulic Fracture Stimulation Techniques For Tight Oil And Gas Shale Formations

4.1 Introduction

Overview of the Exploration-Production Life Cycle

Phases of Activity

4.2 Phase 1 - Prospect Generation For Unconventional Oil And Gas Targets

Unconventional Resources Prospecting

Geologic and Reservoir Study

Evaluation of Aerial Extent

Site-Specific Technical Details

Geochemistry and Basin History

Unconventional Resource Issues

Estimating Oil and Gas

Original Oil in Place (OOIP)

Original Gas in Place (OGIP)

Risk Factors

Geochemistry Studies

Geophysical Data Acquisition

Gravity Surveys

Geomagnetic Surveys

Seismic Reflection Surveys

4.3 Phase 2 - Planning Phase

Leases

Drilling Permit Process and Public Participation

Drilling Pad Construction

4.4 Phase 3 - Drilling

Drilling Rig

Circulation System

Logging Equipment

Fluid Management System

Drill String

Directional Drilling and Horizontal Drilling

Casing System

Conductor Casing

Surface Casing

Intermediate Casing

Production Casing

Blowout Preventer

Cementing System

4.5 Brief Overview Of Hydraulic Fracturing

4.6 Operators And Contractors

4.7 Phase 4 - Completion

4.8 Overview Of Hydraulic Fracturing Process

Technology Improvements

4.9 Single Stage Treatment

Four Phase Treatment

Phase 1 - Acid Injection

Phase 2 - Slickwater Injection

Phase 3 - Proppant Sequence Injection

Phase 4 - Flushing Phase

4.10 Fluid Recovery And Waste Management

Flowback Fluids

4.11 Oil And Gas Production

Residual Oil Zones: Unconventional Target

Co-Produced Water

4.12 Norm

Transportation Challenges

Lithium Source

Oil and Gas Production Limits

4.13 Workshop #1 – Gas Well Economic Limit

4.14 Workshop #2 – Oil Well Economics

4.15 Well Or Field Abandonment

Site Restoration

4.16 Summary

4.17 Exercises

4.18 References

5.0 Overview Of Impacts From Tight Oil And Shale Gas Resource Development

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Potential Impacts And Risk Of Spills

5.3 Significance Of Impacts

5.4 Overview Of The Five Main Resource Categories

Air Resources

Geological and Soil Resources

Ecological Resources

Land Use Resources and Socioeconomics

Water Resources

5.5 Primary Wastes Generated

5.6 Site-Specific Impact Analysis

Checklist for Site-Specific Impact Analysis

5.6.1 Impacts from Phase 1 – Prospect Generation

Geochemical Sampling

Geophysical Surveys

5.6.2 Impacts from Phase 2 – Planning and Site Preparation

Emissions

Surface Footprint

Waste Generation

Water

Workforce and Time

Other Impacts

5.6.3 Impacts from Phase 3 – Drilling

Emissions

Hazardous Materials

Surface Footprint

Waste Generation

Water Requirements

Workforce and Time

Utility Requirements

Other Impacts

Blowouts

Well Control

Fracking Related Surface Blowouts

Underground Blowouts

5.6.4 Impacts from Produced Fluids and Gases at Oil and Gas Fields

Constituents of Environmental Concern

5.6.5 Impacts from Natural Gas

5.6.6 Impacts from Crude Oil

5.6.7 Impacts from Phase 4 – Well Completion and Hydraulic Fracture Stimulation

5.6.8 Impacts from Phase 5 – Fluid Recovery and Waste Management

5.6.9 Impacts from Naturally-Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORMS)

5.6.10 Impacts from Other Miscellaneous Hazardous Compounds

5.6.11 Impacts from Phase 6 – Oil and Gas Production

Activities

Spills and Leaks

Surface Footprint

Utility Requirements

Waste Generation

Water Needs

Workforce and Time

5.6.12 Impacts from Drilling Fluids and Production Wastes

5.6.13 Impacts from Specific Oil and Gas Field Locations

5.6.14 Impacts from Historic and Abandoned Oil, Gas and Water Wells

5.6.15 Impacts from Transportation Activities

5.6.16 Impacts from Phase 7 – Well Abandonment and Site Restoration

Emissions

Exhaust

Surface Footprint

Waste Generation

Water Needs

Workforce and Time

Utility Requirements

5.7 SUMMARY OF RESOURCES AND ISSUES

Air Resources

Mitigation Measures

Ecological Resources

Mitigation Measures

Cultural and Paleontological Resources

Mitigation Measures

Environmental Justice Issues

Mitigation Measures

Water Resources

Water Quantity

Mitigation Measures

Water Quality

Mitigation Measures

Hazardous Materials And Waste Violation Issues

Mitigation Measures

Quality of Life: Scenic Views, Natural Soundscapes and Dark and Clear Night Skies

Mitigation Measures

Aesthetic Issues

Mitigation Measures

Urban Use Issues

Mitigation Measures

Seismicity Issues

Mitigation Measures

Health and Safety Issues

Mitigation Measures

Socioeconomic and Infrastructure Issues

Mitigation Measures

5.8 Summary

5.9 Exercises

5.10 References

6.0 Surface And Groundwater Risks, Resource Quality Management And Impacts

6.1 Introduction

6.2 The Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle

Water Acquisition

Chemical Mixing

Well Injection

Produced Water Handling

Wastewater Disposal and Reuse

6.3 Potential Impacts On Drinking Water Resources

Vertical Distance between Drinking Water Resources and Hydraulic Fracturing

6.4 Public Water Systems (Pws) Sources

Vertical Distance between PWS Sources and Hydraulic Fracturing Activities

Lateral Distance between PWS Sources and Hydraulic Fracturing Activities

6.5 Underground Injection Control

The Underground Injection Control Program

Water Quality and Aquifer Exemptions

Abandoned Wells

6.6 Case Histories

6.7 Exercises

6.8 References

7.0 Induced Seismicity

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Measuring Earthquake Severity

7.2.1 Intensity and Magnitude

7.2.2 Measuring the Size of an Earthquake

7.3 Anthropogenic - Induced Earthquakes

7.4 Mechanics Of Anthropogenic-Induced Earthquakes

7.5 Induced Microseismicity And Microseismic Monitoring

7.6 Exercises

7.7 References

8.0 Air Quality Resources And Mitigation Measures

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Unconventional Resource Extraction And Air Quality

8.3 Sources Of Air Emissions

8.3.1 Flares

8.3.2 Fugitive Emissions

8.3.3 Air Quality And Frac Sands

8.4 Worker Safety

8.4.1 Worker Exposure

8.4.2 Construction Particulates

8.4.3 Silica Dust

Silica Dust Levels

Silica Dust Mitigation Measures

Option 1 - Silica Substitute

Option 2 - Engineering Controls

Option 3 - Improve Work Practices

Option 4 – Personal Protective Equipment

Protecting Workers from Silica Dust

Protecting the Public from Silica Dust

8.4.4 Diesel Exhaust and Diesel Particular Matter Controlling Diesel Particulate Matter

8.4.5 Hydrogen Sulfide Gas

8.4.6 Aldehyde Exposure

8.4.7 Volatile Organic Compounds

8.4.8 Toxic Fungus

8.4.9 Radon

8.5 Gas Leaks And Vapor Sampling

8.6 Biogenic And Thermogenic Hydrocarbon Gases

8.7 Gas Leaks

8.7.1 Coalbed Methane

8.7.2 Gas Explosions

8.7.3 Processed Natural Gas

8.7.4 Vapors and Odor Sensitivity

8.8 Soil Vapor Intrusion Overview

8.8.1 Environmental Factors Description

8.8.2 Natural factors Affecting Gas Migration Into Buildings

8.8.3 Architectural Factors Affecting Gas Migration Into Buildings

8.8.4 Other Factors Affecting Indoor Air Quality T

8.8.5 Other Source Descriptions for Indoor Air Degradation

8.9 General Approach To Evaluating Soil Vapor Intrusion

8.9.1 Air and Vapor Conversion Factors

8.9.2 Types of Air and vapor Samples

Air Sampling

Subsurface Vapor Sampling

8.9.3 Photoionization Detector for Vapor Screening

8.9.4 Active Air Screening and Monitoring

8.9.5 Passive Air Monitoring

8.9.6 Passive Air Screening

8.9.7 Passive Soil Vapor Sampling

8.9.8 Active Soil Gas Sampling

8.9.9 Laboratory Analysis

8.9.10 Vapor Sample Collection

8.9.11 Analytical Approach

8.10 Summary

8.11 Exercises

8.12 References

9.0 Land Use Resources And Socioeconomics

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Community Concerns And Land Use Planning

9.2.1 Community Issues

9.2.2 Best Management Approach

9.2.3 Setback

9.2.4 Cultural Resource Protection and Historic Resource Protection

9.3 Environmental Justice

9.4 Land Disturbance

9.4.1 Abiotic Ecosystem Processes

9.4.2 Acid Rock Drainage

9.4.3 Acid Rock Drainage Mitigation

9.4.4 Native plant Communities

9.4.5 Invasive Plants

9.4.6 Land Disturbance Mitigation

9.6 Light Pollution

9.6.1 Lighting Mitigation Measures

9.6.2 Flaring Mitigation Measures

9.7 Noise

9.7.1 Speed of Sound

9.7.2 Measuring Sound

9.7.3 Measuring Noise and Modeling

9.7.4 On-Site Noise Investigation

9.7.5 Noise Studies

9.7.6 Background Sound Study

9.7.7 Initial Sound Study

9.7.8 Noise Minimization Planning

9.7.9 Noise Mitigation Methods

9.8 Odor

9.9 Socioeconomics

9.9.1 Social Challenges

9.9.2 Community Issues

9.9.2 Mental Health Issues

9.10 Transportation And Traffic

9.10.1 Trackout

9.10.2 Truck trips

9.11 Visual Aesthetics

9.12 Worker Safety

9.12.1 Worker Training and Education

9.13 Cumulative Impacts

9.14 Exercises

9.15 References

10.0 Ecological Resources

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Ecosystem Resources

10.2.1 Regulating Services

10.2.2 Supporting Services

10.2.3 Provisioning Services

10.2.4 Cultural Services

10.3 Ecosystem Resources

10.3.1 Ecosystem Issues

10.3.2 Drilling Pad as Attractant

10.3.3 Ecological Protection

10.3.4 Habitat Preservation and Invasive Species

10.3.5 Invasive Species

10.4 Interim Reclamation

10.4.1 Mitigating Measures

10.4.2 Supplies for Unconventional Oil and Gas Protection

10.4.3 Spills on Water

10.4.3.1. Shoreline Strategies

10.4.3.2. Shoreline Cleanup Methods

10.4.3.3. Oil Spill Prevention

10.4.3.4. Special Environmental Mapping and Modeling

10.4.3.5. Spill Responses on Water

10.4.3.6. Booms

10.4.3.7. Skimming Methods

10.5 Summary

10.6 Exercises

10.7 References

11.0 Legislative Trends Associated With Well Stimulation And Hydraulic Fracturing

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Federal Laws And Regulations

11.2.1 The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)

11.2.2 Clean Water Act (CWA)

11.2.3 Emergency Planning and Community Right to Know Act

11.2.4 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

11.2.5 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (Superfund Program)

11.2.6 Clean Air Act

11.3 State Legislation And Regulations

11.3.1 Disclosure Requirements

11.3.2 Legislative and Regulatory Trends for Certain States

11.4 Bans And Moratoriums

11.5 Exercises.

11.6 References

12.0 Sampling, Exposure Pathways And Site Conceptual Models

12.1 Introduction

12.1.1 Pathway Group 0

12.1.2 Pathway Group 1

Checklist for Common Features Associated with Abandoned Wells

12.1.3 Pathway Group 2

12.1.4 Pathway Group 3

12.1.5 Pathway Group 4

12.2 Hypothetical Scenario

12.2.1 Site Conceptual Model

12.3 Sampling Plan Objectives

12.3.1 Risk Based Decision Making

12.4 Overview Of Sampling Procedures

Example of Hypothetical Scenario Sampling Plan Elements

12.4.1 Types of Samples

12.4.2 Discrete vs. Composite Samples

12.4.3 Composite vs. Incremental Sampling Methodology

12.4.4 In Situ vs. Disturbed Samples

12.4.5 Continuous Core vs. Discrete-Depth Sampling

12.4.6 Permanent vs. Temporary Samples

12.4.7 Active vs. Passive Sampling Methodology

12.4.8 Cross Contamination

12.4.9 Air Sampling

12.4.10 Soil Vapor Sampling

12.5 Soil And Water Sampling

12.5.1 Borehole Methods

12.5.2 Direct Push Technology (DPT)

12.5.3 Sonic Drilling

12.5.4 Hollow Stem Auger (HSA)

12.5,5 Other Rotary Drilling Methods

12.6 Field Screening And Analysis

12.6.1 Gas Meters

12.6.2 Gas Colorimetric Glass Tubes

12.6.3 Field Water Meters

12.6.4 Water and Soil Field Kits

12.7 Other Considerations

12.7.1 Soil and Rock Heterogeneity

12.7.2 Laboratory Terms

12.7.3 Quantitative Laboratory Methods

12.7.4 Chemistry of Petroleum Hydrocarbons

12.7.5 Commonly Used Chemicals in Oil and Gas Industry

12.7.6 Unconventional Oil and Gas Chemical Additives

12.7.7 Unconventional Oil and Gas Parameters of Interest

12.7.8 Unconventional Oil and Gas Chemicals of Interest

12.8 Fate and Transport

12.8.1 Organic Carbon-Water Partitioning Coefficient (Koc)

12.8.2 Distribution Coefficient (Kd)

12.8.3 Henry’s Law Solubilities

12.8.4 Aqueous Solubility (S)

12.8.5 Water Well Quality in Areas of Unconventional Oil and Gas Development

12.8.6 Laboratory Analysis for Water Wells

12.9 Summary

12.10 Exercises

12.11 References

13.0 Financial Issues: Real Estate Values, And Selected Contracting Costs Of Repairs, Assessment Or Mitigation Activities For Unconventional Oil And Gas Production Areas

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Valuation of Real Estate

13.2.1 Real Estate

13.2.2 Operational Timing

13.2.3 Split Estate

13.2.4 Land Owner Royalty Payments

13.2.5 Future Use

13.2.6 Oil and Gas Production 2000-2015

13.2.7 Value of Residential Real Estate

13.2.8 Perceptions

13.2.9 Property Value Survey

13.2.10 Home Prices Near Well Sites

13.3 Water Supplies

13.3.1 Domestic Water Well Costs

13.3.2 Public Water Supplies

13.3.3 Water Treatment Systems

13.4 Other Mitigating Costs

13.4.1 Soundproofing Equipment Shed

13.4.2 Road Construction Projects

13.7 Mitigation of Subsurface Impacts

13.7.1 Orphan Well Survey

13.7.2 Orphan Well Destruction

13.7.3 Subsurface Investigation

13.7.4 Hypothetical Case - Suspected Pipeline Spill Project

13.7.4.1 Cost of Hypothetical Soil Sampling Project

13.8 Remediation Strategies

13.8.1 Risk Management Strategies

13.8.2 Lender Risk Reduction

13.8.3 Green and Sustainable Remediation

Green and Sustainable Tools and Software

SiteWiseTM Tool for Green and Sustainable Remediation

Sustainable Remediation Tool (SRT)

13.8.4 Natural Attenuation Software (NAS)

13.8.5 Mass Flux Toolkit

13.8.6 Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable Decision Support Tools

13.8.7 Risk-Based Decision Making

13.9 Budgeting For Costs

13.9.1 Low Cost Cleanup Projects

13.9.2 Medium Cleanup Cost Projects

13.9.3 Higher Cleanup Cost Projects

13.9.4 Railway Cleanup Costs

13.9.5 Pipeline Leaks

13.10 Summary

13.11 EXERCISES

13.12 REFERENCES

14.0 LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS AND CASE LAW

14.1 INTRODUCTION

14.2 ENVIRONMENTAL TORT LITIGATION

14.3 ENVIRONMENTAL/CITIZEN ACTION AND INDUSTRY CHALLENGES LITIGATION

14.4 INFRASTRUCTURE-RELATED LITIGATION

14.5 TRADITIONAL OIL AND GAS ISSUES IN NON-TRADITIONAL FORUMS

14.6 FRACKING BANS AND MORATORIUMS

14.7 SUMMARY

14.8 EXERCISES

14.9 REFERENCES

15.0 SPILLS, FORENSIC EVALUATION, AND CASE STUDIES

15.1 INTRODUCTION

15.2 SPILL STUDIES

15.2.1 EPA Study (2015)

15.2.2 Patterson and Others (2017)

15.2.3 Spill Settlement Case Study

15.2.4 Rail Case Studies

15.2.4.1 Bakken Crude Oil Charactristics: 2 Studies

15.2.4.2 Summary of Bakken Crude Oil Spill Incidents (MassDEP, 2015)

15.2.5 Fate and Transport of Spilled Crude

15.2.6 Combustion

15.2. 7 DOT-117 Tank Car Design

15.3 Violations

15.4 Forensis Analysis

15.4.1 Gas Chromatograms

15.4.2 Tentatively Identified Compounds (TICs)

15.4.3 Piper Diagrams

15.4.4 Biomarkers

15.4.5 Chemical and Biological Transformations

15.4.6 Chemical Ratios

15.4.7 Geochemical Tracers

15.6.7.1 2-n-Butoxyethanol Tracer Case Study

15.4.8 Isotopes

15.4.8.1 Hydrogen and Oxygen Isotopes

15.4.8.2 Carbon and Methane Isotopes

15.4.9 Forensic Isotope Analysis

15.4.10 Boron and Strontium Isotope Ratios

15.4.11 Radioactive Isotopes

15.4.12 Case Studies

15.4.12.1 Water Isotope Case Study in Northern California

15.4.12.2 Water Isotope Case Study in Northeast Pennsylvania

15.5 Prospective And Restrospective Case Studies

15.5.1 EPA Retrospective Case Study

15.5.2 EPA Retrospective Study Approach and Sampling Activities

15.5.2.1 Northeast Pennsylvania

15.5.2.2 Southwest Pennsylvania

15.5.2.3 North Texas

15.5.2.4 West North Dakota

15.5.2.5 Southeast Colorado

15.5.3 Summary of EPA Retrospective Studies

15.5.4 Other Case Studies in Northeastern Pennsylvania

15.6 Exercises

15.7 References

16.0 Conclusions

List of Appendices

Appendices

Appendix A U.S. University Studies

Appendix B Glossary of Technical Terms

Appendix C Abbreviations

Appendix D Conversions

Appendix E Job Safety Chart

Appendix F Chemical Additives

Appendix G Exposure Planning, Emergency Response, and Toxicity Tables

Appendix H Selected Sampling Methods and Documentation

Appendix I Environmental Checklists

Appendix J Summary of Subsurface Information on Major Gas Shales Basins

in the United States (Table3.4) Metric Conversion