Title Details

Kazuo Sakiyama: Associate Professor, The University of Electro-Communications, Tokyo, Japan.
Dr Sakiyama’s area of expertise includes digital circuit design, cryptographic embedded systems, and secure computing. He has been working on digital circuit design since 1996. Since 2001 he has focused on cryptographic embedded systems, and has been teaching hardware security in several lectures of advanced cryptography and PBL (project-based learning) courses.

Yu Sasaki: Researcher, NTT Secure Platform Laboratories, NTT Corporation, Tokyo, Japan.
He has been working on the cryptography since 2004. His research interest has focused on security evaluation of cryptographic protocols and cryptanalysis on symmetric-key primitives.

Yang Li: Research Assistant, The University of Electro-Communications, Japan.

Preface xi

About the Authors xiii

1 Introduction to Block Ciphers 1

1.1 Block Cipher in Cryptology 1

1.1.1 Introduction 1

1.1.2 Symmetric-Key Ciphers 1

1.1.3 Efficient Block Cipher Design 2

1.2 Boolean Function and Galois Field 3

1.2.1 INV, OR, AND, and XOR Operators 3

1.2.2 Galois Field 3

1.2.3 Extended Binary Field and Representation of Elements 4

1.3 Linear and Nonlinear Functions in Boolean Algebra 7

1.3.1 Linear Functions 7

1.3.2 Nonlinear Functions 7

1.4 Linear and Nonlinear Functions in Block Cipher 8

1.4.1 Nonlinear Layer 8

1.4.2 Linear Layer 11

1.4.3 Substitution-Permutation Network (SPN) 12

1.5 Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) 12

1.5.1 Specification of AES-128 Encryption 12

1.5.2 AES-128 Decryption 19

1.5.3 Specification of AES-192 and AES-256 20

1.5.4 Notations to Describe AES-128 23

Further Reading 25

2 Introduction to Digital Circuits 27

2.1 Basics of Modern Digital Circuits 27

2.1.1 Digital Circuit Design Method 27

2.1.2 Synchronous-Style Design Flow 27

2.1.3 Hierarchy in Digital Circuit Design 29

2.2 Classification of Signals in Digital Circuits 29

2.2.1 Clock Signal 29

2.2.2 Reset Signal 30

2.2.3 Data Signal 31

2.3 Basics of Digital Logics and Functional Modules 31

2.3.1 Combinatorial Logics 31

2.3.2 Sequential Logics 32

2.3.3 Controller and Datapath Modules 36

2.4 Memory Modules 40

2.4.1 Single-Port SRAM 40

2.4.2 Register File 41

2.5 Signal Delay and Timing Analysis 42

2.5.1 Signal Delay 42

2.5.2 Static Timing Analysis and Dynamic Timing Analysis 45

2.6 Cost and Performance of Digital Circuits 47

2.6.1 Area Cost 47

2.6.2 Latency and Throughput 47

Further Reading 48

3 Hardware Implementations for Block Ciphers 49

3.1 Parallel Architecture 49

3.1.1 Comparison between Serial and Parallel Architectures 49

3.1.2 Algorithm Optimization for Parallel Architectures 50

3.2 Loop Architecture 51

3.2.1 Straightforward (Loop-Unrolled) Architecture 51

3.2.2 Basic Loop Architecture 53

3.3 Pipeline Architecture 55

3.3.1 Pipeline Architecture for Block Ciphers 55

3.3.2 Advanced Pipeline Architecture for Block Ciphers 56

3.4 AES Hardware Implementations 58

3.4.1 Straightforward Implementation for AES-128 58

3.4.2 Loop Architecture for AES-128 61

3.4.3 Pipeline Architecture for AES-128 65

3.4.4 Compact Architecture for AES-128 66

Further Reading 67

4 Cryptanalysis on Block Ciphers 69

4.1 Basics of Cryptanalysis 69

4.1.1 Block Ciphers 69

4.1.2 Security of Block Ciphers 70

4.1.3 Attack Models 71

4.1.4 Complexity of Cryptanalysis 73

4.1.5 Generic Attacks 74

4.1.6 Goal of Shortcut Attacks (Cryptanalysis) 77

4.2 Differential Cryptanalysis 78

4.2.1 Basic Concept and Definition 78

4.2.2 Motivation of Differential Cryptanalysis 79

4.2.3 Probability of Differential Propagation 80

4.2.4 Deterministic Differential Propagation in Linear Computations 83

4.2.5 Probabilistic Differential Propagation in Nonlinear Computations 86

4.2.6 Probability of Differential Propagation for Multiple Rounds 89

4.2.7 Differential Characteristic for AES Reduced to Three Rounds 91

4.2.8 Distinguishing Attack with Differential Characteristic 93

4.2.9 Key Recovery Attack after Differential Characteristic 95

4.2.10 Basic Differential Cryptanalysis for Four-Round AES † 96

4.2.11 Advanced Differential Cryptanalysis for Four-Round AES † 103

4.2.12 Preventing Differential Cryptanalysis † 106

4.3 Impossible Differential Cryptanalysis 110

4.3.1 Basic Concept and Definition 110

4.3.2 Impossible Differential Characteristic for 3.5-round AES 111

4.3.3 Key Recovery Attacks for Five-Round AES 114

4.3.4 Key Recovery Attacks for Seven-Round AES † 123

4.4 Integral Cryptanalysis 131

4.4.1 Basic Concept 131

4.4.2 Processing P through Subkey XOR 132

4.4.3 Processing P through SubBytes Operation 133

4.4.4 Processing P through ShiftRows Operation 134

4.4.5 Processing P through MixColumns Operation 134

4.4.6 Integral Property of AES Reduced to 2.5 Rounds 135

4.4.7 Balanced Property 136

4.4.8 Integral Property of AES Reduced to Three Rounds and Distinguishing Attack 137

4.4.9 Key Recovery Attack with Integral Cryptanalysis for Five Rounds 139

4.4.10 Higher-Order Integral Property † 141

4.4.11 Key Recovery Attack with Integral Cryptanalysis for Six Rounds † 143

Further Reading 147

5 Side-Channel Analysis and Fault Analysis on Block Ciphers 149

5.1 Introduction 149

5.1.1 Intrusion Degree of Physical Attacks 149

5.1.2 Passive and Active Noninvasive Physical Attacks 151

5.1.3 Cryptanalysis Compared to Side-Channel Analysis and Fault Analysis 151

5.2 Basics of Side-Channel Analysis 152

5.2.1 Side Channels of Digital Circuits 152

5.2.2 Goal of Side-Channel Analysis 154

5.2.3 General Procedures of Side-Channel Analysis 155

5.2.4 Profiling versus Non-profiling Side-Channel Analysis 156

5.2.5 Divide-and-Conquer Algorithm 157

5.3 Side-Channel Analysis on Block Ciphers 159

5.3.1 Power Consumption Measurement in Power Analysis 160

5.3.2 Simple Power Analysis and Differential Power Analysis 163

5.3.3 General Key Recovery Algorithm for DPA 164

5.3.4 Overview of Attack Targets 169

5.3.5 Single-Bit DPA Attack on AES-128 Hardware Implementations 181

5.3.6 Attacks Using HW Model on AES-128 Hardware Implementations 186

5.3.7 Attacks Using HD Model on AES-128 Hardware Implementations 192

5.3.8 Attacks with Collision Model † 199

5.4 Basics of Fault Analysis 203

5.4.1 Faults Caused by Setup-Time Violations 205

5.4.2 Faults Caused by Data Alternation 208

5.5 Fault Analysis on Block Ciphers 208

5.5.1 Differential Fault Analysis 208

5.5.2 Fault Sensitivity Analysis † 215

Acknowledgment 223

Bibliography 223

6 Advanced Fault Analysis with Techniques from Cryptanalysis 225

6.1 Optimized Differential Fault Analysis 226

6.1.1 Relaxing Fault Model 226

6.1.2 Four Classes of Faulty Byte Positions 227

6.1.3 Recovering Subkey Candidates of sk10 228

6.1.4 Attack Procedure 230

6.1.5 Probabilistic Fault Injection 231

6.1.6 Optimized DFA with the MixColumns Operation in the Last Round † 232

6.1.7 Countermeasures against DFA and Motivation of Advanced DFA 236

6.2 Impossible Differential Fault Analysis 237

6.2.1 Fault Model 238

6.2.2 Impossible DFA with Unknown Faulty Byte Positions 238

6.2.3 Impossible DFA with Fixed Faulty Byte Position 244

6.3 Integral Differential Fault Analysis 245

6.3.1 Fault Model 246

6.3.2 Integral DFA with Bit-Fault Model 247

6.3.3 Integral DFA with Random Byte-Fault Model 251

6.3.4 Integral DFA with Noisy Random Byte-Fault Model † 254

6.4 Meet-in-the-Middle Fault Analysis 260

6.4.1 Meet-in-the-Middle Attack on Block Ciphers 260

6.4.2 Meet-in-the-Middle Attack for Differential Fault Analysis 263

Further Reading 268

7 Countermeasures against Side-Channel Analysis and Fault Analysis 269

7.1 Logic-Level Hiding Countermeasures 269

7.1.1 Overview of Hiding Countermeasure with WDDL Technique 270

7.1.2 WDDL-NAND Gate 272

7.1.3 WDDL-NOR and WDDL-INV Gates 273

7.1.4 Precharge Logic for WDDL Technique 273

7.1.5 Intrinsic Fault Detection Mechanism of WDDL 276

7.2 Logic-Level Masking Countermeasures 277

7.2.1 Overview of Masking Countermeasure 277

7.2.2 Operations on Values with Boolean Masking 278

7.2.3 Re-masking and Unmasking 278

7.2.4 Masked AND Gate 279

7.2.5 Random Switching Logic 281

7.2.6 Threshold Implementation 283

7.3 Higher Level Countermeasures 285

7.3.1 Algorithm-Level Countermeasures 286

7.3.2 Architecture-Level Countermeasures 289

7.3.3 Protocol-Level Countermeasure 290

Bibliography 291

Index 293