Title Details

Chapter 1.  Introduction.

Two Perennial Questions.

What Causes Behavior?

Why Does Behavior Vary in Its Intensity?

Subject Matter.

Internal Motives.

External Events.

Expressions of Motivation.

Behavior.

Physiology.

Self?Report.

Themes in the Study of Motivation.

Motivation Benefits Adaptation.

Motives Direct Attention.

Motives Vary Over Time and Influence the Stream of Behavior.

Types of Motivation Exist.

Motivation Includes Both Approach and Avoidance Tendencies.

Motivation Study Reveals What People Want.

To Flourish, Motivation Needs Supportive Conditions.

There Is Nothing So Practical As a Good Theory.

Putting It All Together:

A Framework to Understand the Study of Motivation.

Summary.

Chapter 2.  Motivation in Historical and Contemporary Perspective.

Philosophical Origins of Motivational Concepts.

Will: The First Grand Theory.

Instinct: The Second Grand Theory.

Drive: The Third Grand Theory.

Freud’s Drive Theory.

Hull’s Drive Theory.

Decline of Drive Theory.

Post?Drive Theory Years.

Rise of the Mini?Theories.

Active Nature of the Person.

Cognitive Revolution.

Applied, Socially Relevant Research.

Contemporary Mini-Theories Era.

The 1990s Return of Motivation Study.

Conclusion.

Summary.

Readings for Further Study.

Chapter 3.  The Motivated and Emotional Brain.

The Motivated and Emotional Brain.

Three Principles.

    2.  Biochemical agents stimulate brain structures.

    3.  Day-to-day events stir biochemical agents into action.

Looking Inside the Brain.

Brain-Generated Approach vs. Avoidance.

Hypothalamus.

Medial Forebrain Bundle.

Amygdala.

Septo-Hippocampal Circuit.

Reticular Formation.

Prefrontal Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex.

Neurotransmitter Pathways in the Brain.

Dopamine.

Dopamine Release and the Anticipation of Reward.

Biology of Reward.

Dopamine and Motivated Action.

The World in Which the Brain Lives

Motivation Cannot Be Separated from the Social Context in which It Is Embedded.

We Are Not Always Consciously Aware of the Motivational Basis of our Behavior.

Conclusion.

Summary.

Readings for Further Study.

Part I.  Needs. 

Chapter 4. Physiological Needs.

Need.

Fundamentals of Regulation.

Physiological Need.

Psychological Drive.

Homeostasis.

Negative Feedback.

Multiple Inputs/Multiple Outputs.

Intra?Organismic Mechanisms.

Extra?Organismic Mechanisms.

Thirst.

Physiological Regulation.

Thirst activation.

Third satiety.

Hypothalamus and liver.

Environmental Influences.

Hunger.

Short-Term Appetite.

Long-Term Energy Balance.

Environmental Influences.

Restraint-release Situations.

Cognitively-regulated eating style.

Weight gain and obesity.

Sex.

Physiological Regulation.

Facial Metrics.

Sexual Scripts.

Sexual Orientation.

Evolutionary Basis of Sexual Motivation.

Failures to Self?Regulate Physiological Needs.

Summary.

Readings for Further Study. 

Chapter 5.  Psychological Needs.

Psychological Needs.

Need Structure.

Organismic Approach to Motivation.

Person-environment dialectic.

Organismic psychological needs.

Autonomy.

Supporting Autonomy.

Nurtures inner motivational resources.

Relies on informational language.

Promotes valuing.

Acknowledges and accepts negative affect.

Moment-to-Moment Autonomy Support.

Benefits of an Autonomy?Supportive Motivating Style.

Two Illustrations.

Competence.

Involving Competence.

Optimal challenge and flow.

Interdependency between challenge and feedback.

Failure tolerance.

Structure.

Supporting Competence.

Positive feedback.

Pleasure of optimal challenge and positive feedback.

Relatedness.

Involving Relatedness: Interaction With Others.

Satisfying Relatedness: Perception of a Social Bond.

Communal and exchange relationships.

Internalization.

Putting It All Together: Social Contexts That Involve and Satisfy.

Psychological Needs.

Engagement.

What Makes for a Good Day?

Vitality.

Summary.

Readings for Further Study.

Chapter 6. Intrinsic Motivation and Types of Extrinsic Motivation.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations.

Intrinsic Motivation.

Extrinsic Motivation.

Types of Extrinsic Motivation.

Incentives and Consequences.

Incentives.

What Is a Reinforcer?

Consequences.

Positive reinforcers.

Negative reinforcers.

Punishers.

Does punishment work?

Hidden Costs of Reward.

Expected and Tangible Rewards.

Implications.

Benefits of Incentives and Rewards.

Cognitive Evaluation Theory.

Two Examples of Controlling and Informational Events.

Praise.

Competition.

Self?Determination Theory.

Types of Extrinsic Motivation.

External regulation.

Introjected regulation.

Identified regulation.

Integrated regulation.

Benefits of Facilitating Intrinsic Motivation.

Persistence.

Creativity.

Conceptual understanding/High quality learning.

Optimal functioning and well-being.

Putting It All Together: Motivating Others on Uninteresting Activities.

Summary.

Readings for Further Study.

Chapter 7. Social Needs.

Acquired Needs.

Quasi?Needs.

Social Needs.

How Social Needs Motivate Behavior.

Achievement.

Origins of the Need for Achievement.

Socialization influences.

Cognitive influences.

Developmental influences.

Atkinson’s Model.

Tendency to approach success.

Tendency to avoid failure.

Combined approach and avoidance tendencies.

Achievement for the future.

Dynamics?of?Action Model.

Conditions That Involve and Satisfy the Need for Achievement.

Moderately difficult tasks.

Competition.

Entrepreneurship.

Achievement Goals.

Integrating Classical and Contemporary Approaches to.

Achievement Motivation.

Avoidance Motivation and Well-Being.

Implicit Theories.

Different implicit theories mean different achievement goals.

Meaning of effort.

Affiliation and Intimacy.

Conditions That Involve the Affiliation and Intimacy Needs.

Fear and anxiety.

Development of interpersonal relationships.

Maintaining interpersonal networks.

Satisfying the affiliation and intimacy needs.

Power.

Conditions That Involve and Satisfy the Need for Power.

Leadership and relationships.

Aggressiveness.

Influential occupations.

Prestige possessions.

Leadership Motive Pattern.

Effectiveness of U.S. presidents.

Summary.

Readings for Further Study.

Part II. Cognitions.

Chapter 8.  Goals.

Cognitive Perspective on Motivation.

Plans.

Corrective Motivation.

Discrepancy.

Two Types of Discrepancy.

Goals.

Performance.

Goal difficulty.

Goal specificity.

Difficult, Specific Goals Enhance Performance.

Feedback.

Goal Acceptance.

Criticisms.

Long‑Term Goal Setting.

Personal Strivings.

Personal growth and subjective well-being.

Implementation Intentions.

Mental Simulations: Focusing on Action.

Formulating Implementation Intentions.

Goal Pursuit: Getting Started.

Goal Pursuit: Persisting and Finishing.

Self-Regulation.

Developing More Competent Self-Regulation.          

Summary.

Readings for Further Study.

Chapter 9.  Personal Control Beliefs.

Motivation to Exercise Personal Control.

Two Kinds of Expectancy.

Self‑Efficacy.

Sources of Self-Efficacy.

Personal behavior history.

Vicarious experience.

Verbal persuasion.

Physiological state.

Self‑Efficacy Effects on Behavior.

Choice: Selection of activities and environments.

Effort and persistence.

Thinking and decision-making.

Emotionality.

Empowerment.

Empowering People: Mastery Modeling Program.

Personal Control Beliefs.

Mastery Versus Helpless Motivational Orientations.                      

Learned Helplessness.

Learning Helplessness.

Application to Humans.

Components.

Contingency.

Cognition.

Behavior.

Effects of Helplessness.

Motivational deficits.

Learning deficits.

Emotional deficits.

Helplessness and Depression.

Explanatory Style.

Pessimistic explanatory style.

Optimistic explanatory style.

Criticisms and Alternative Explanations.

Reactance Theory.

Reactance and Helplessness.

Putting It All Together: Hope.

Summary.

Readings for Further Study.

Chapter 10. The Self and Its Strivings.

The Self.

The Problem with Self‑Esteem.

Self-Concept.

Self-Schemas.

Motivational Properties of Self-Schemas.

Consistent Self.

Possible Selves.

Cognitive Dissonance.

Dissonance-Arousing Situations.

Choice.

Insufficient justification.

Effort justification.

New information

Motivational Processes Underlying Cognitive Dissonance.

Self-Perception Theory.

Identity.

Roles.

Affect Control Theory.

Energy and Direction.

Identity-confirming behaviors.

Identity-restoring behaviors.

Why People Self-Verify.

Agency.

Self as Action and Development from Within.

Differentiation and integration.

Internalization and the integrating self.

Self-Concordance.

Summary.

Readings for Further Study.

Part III.  Emotions.

Chapter 11. Nature of Emotion: Five Perennial Questions.

What Is an Emotion?

Relationship Between Emotion and Motivation.

Emotion as motivation.

Emotion as a readout system.

What Causes an Emotion?

Biology and Cognition.

Biological perspective.

Cognitive perspective.

Two‑Systems View.

Chicken‑and‑Egg Problem.

Comprehensive Biology‑Cognition Model.

How Many Emotions Are There?

Biological Perspective.

Cognitive Perspective.

Reconciliation of the Numbers Issue.

Basic Emotions.

Fear.

Anger.

Disgust.

Sadness.

Threat and harm.

Joy.

Interest.

Motive involvement and satisfaction.                            

What Good Are the Emotions?

Coping Functions.

Social Functions.

Why We Have Emotions.

What Is the Difference between Emotion and Mood?

Everyday Mood.

Positive Affect.

Conditions that make us feel good.

Benefits of feeling good.

Summary.    

Readings for Further Study.

Chapter 12.  Aspects of Emotion.

Biological Aspects of Emotion.

James‑Lange Theory.

Contemporary Perspective.

Specific neural circuits.

Neural activation.

Differential Emotions Theory.

Facial Feedback Hypothesis.

Facial musculature.

Test of the facial feedback hypothesis.

Are facial expressions of emotion universal across cultures?

Can we voluntarily control our emotions?

Cognitive Aspects of Emotion.

Appraisal.

From perception to appraisal.

From appraisal to emotion.           

From felt emotion to action.

Complex Appraisal.

Primary appraisal.

Secondary appraisal.

Appraisal model of emotion.

Motivation.

Appraisal Process.

Emotion differentiation.

Emotion Knowledge.

Attributions.

Social and Cultural Aspects of Emotion.

Social Interaction.

Emotional Socialization.

Managing Emotions.

Inferring Identities from Emotional Displays.           

Summary.

Readings for Further Study.

Part IV.  Individual Differences.

Chapter 13.  Personality Characteristics.

Happiness.

Extraversion and Happiness.

Neuroticism and Suffering.

Extraverts Are Generally Happy, Neurotics Are Generally Unhappy.

Arousal.

Performance and Emotion.

Insufficient Stimulation and Underarousal.

Excessive Stimulation and Overarousal.

Credibility of the Inverted‑U Hypothesis.

Sensation Seeking.

Search for new experiences.

Risk taking.

Biological basis.

Affect Intensity.                       

Control.

Perceived Control.

Self‑Confirming Cycles of High and Low Engagement = Desire for Control.

Establishing control.

Losing control.                       

Summary.          

Readings for Further Study.

Chapter 14. Unconscious Motivation.

Psychoanalytic Perspective.

Psychoanalytic Becomes Psychodynamic.

Dual‑Instinct Theory.

Drive or Wish?

Contemporary Psychodynamic Theory.

The Unconscious.

Freudian Unconscious.

Non‑Freudian Unconscious.          

Psychodynamics.

Repression.

Suppression.

Do the Id and Ego Actually Exist?         

Ego Psychology.

Ego Development.

Ego Defense.

Ego Effectance.          

Object Relations Theory.

Criticisms.          

Summary.        

Readings for Further Study.

Chapter 15. Growth Motivation and Positive Psychology.

Holism and Positive Psychology.

Holism.

Positive Psychology.

Self‑Actualization.

Hierarchy of Human Needs.

Deficiency needs.

Growth needs.

Research on the need hierarchy.

Encouraging Growth.

Actualizing Tendency.

Emergence of the Self.

Conditions of Worth.

Congruence.

Fully Functioning Individual.

Causality Orientations.

Growth‑Seeking Versus Validation‑Seeking.

How Relationships Support the Actualizing Tendency.

Helping Others.

Freedom to Learn.

Self‑Definition and Social Definition.

The Problem of Evil.

Positive Psychology and Mental Health.

Optimism.

Meaning.

Criticisms.

Summary.

Readings for Further Study.

Conclusion.

Chgapter 16.  Conclusion.

Understanding and Applying Motivation.

Explaining Motivation: Why We Do What We Do.

Predicting Motivation: Identifying Antecedents.

Applying Motivation: Solving Problems.

Motivating Self and Others.

Motivating Self .

Motivating Others.

Feedback on How the Effort to Motivate Self and Others Is Going.

Designing Motivational Interventions.

Four Case Studies.

Four Success Stories.

Attaining personal goals.

Motivating students.

Suppressing hunger, reversing obesity.

Autonomy-supportive parenting.

References.

Name Index.

Subject Index.

Credits.