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More About This Title The xVA Challenge - Counterparty Credit Risk,Funding, Collateral, and Capital 3e
English
The xVA Challenge: Counterparty Credit Risk, Funding, Collateral, and Capital is a practical guide from one of the leading and most influential credit practitioners, Jon Gregory. Focusing on practical methods, this informative guide includes discussion around the latest regulatory requirements, market practice, and academic thinking. Beginning with a look at the emergence of counterparty risk during the recent global financial crisis, the discussion delves into the quantification of firm-wide credit exposure and risk mitigation methods, such as netting and collateral. It also discusses thoroughly the xVA terms, notably CVA, DVA, FVA, ColVA, and KVA and their interactions and overlaps. The discussion of other aspects such as wrong-way risks, hedging, stress testing, and xVA management within a financial institution are covered. The extensive coverage and detailed treatment of what has become an urgent topic makes this book an invaluable reference for any practitioner, policy maker, or student.
Counterparty credit risk and related aspects such as funding, collateral, and capital have become key issues in recent years, now generally characterized by the term 'xVA'. This book provides practical, in-depth guidance toward all aspects of xVA management.
- Market practice around counterparty credit risk and credit and debit value adjustment (CVA and DVA)
- The latest regulatory developments including Basel III capital requirements, central clearing, and mandatory collateral requirements
- The impact of accounting requirements such as IFRS 13
- Recent thinking on the applications of funding, collateral, and capital adjustments (FVA, ColVA and KVA)
The sudden realization of extensive counterparty risks has severely compromised the health of global financial markets. It's now a major point of action for all financial institutions, which have realized the growing importance of consistent treatment of collateral, funding, and capital alongside counterparty risk. The xVA Challenge: Counterparty Credit Risk, Funding, Collateral, and Capital provides expert perspective and real-world guidance for today's institutions.
English
JON GREGORY is an independent expert specialising in counterparty risk and related aspects. He has worked on many aspects of credit risk in his career, being previously with Barclays Capital, BNP Paribas and Citigroup. He is a senior advisor for Solum Financial Derivatives Advisory and is a faculty member for the certificate of Quantitative Finance (CQR). Jon has a PhD from Cambridge University.
English
List of Spreadsheets xix
List of Appendices xxi
Acknowledgements xxiii
About the Author xxv
1 Introduction 1
2 The Global Financial Crisis 3
2.1 Pre-crisis 3
2.2 The crisis 5
2.3 Regulatory reform 8
2.4 Backlash and criticisms 8
2.5 A new world 10
3 The OTC Derivatives Market 11
3.1 The derivatives market 11
3.1.1 Derivatives 11
3.1.2 Exchange traded and OTC derivatives 12
3.1.3 Market size 12
3.1.4 Market participants 14
3.1.5 Credit derivatives 16
3.1.6 The dangers of derivatives 17
3.1.7 The Lehman experience 17
3.2 Derivative risks 18
3.2.1 Market risk 18
3.2.2 Credit risk 19
3.2.3 Operational and legal risk 19
3.2.4 Liquidity risk 20
3.2.5 Integration of risk types 20
3.2.6 Counterparty risk 20
3.3 Risk management of derivatives 20
3.3.1 Value-at-risk 20
3.3.2 Models 23
3.3.3 Correlation and dependency 23
4 Counterparty Risk 25
4.1 Background 25
4.1.1 Counterparty risk versus lending risk 25
4.1.2 Settlement and pre-settlement risk 26
4.1.3 Mitigating counterparty risk 28
4.1.4 Exposure and product type 29
4.1.5 Setups 31
4.2 Components 32
4.2.1 Mark-to-market and replacement cost 33
4.2.2 Credit exposure 33
4.2.3 Default probability, credit migration and credit spreads 34
4.2.4 Recovery and loss given default 35
4.3 Control and quantification 36
4.3.1 Credit limits 36
4.3.2 Credit value adjustment 38
4.3.3 CVA and credit limits 38
4.3.4 What does CVA represent? 39
4.3.5 Hedging counterparty risk 41
4.3.6 The CVA desk 42
4.4 Beyond CVA 43
4.4.1 Overview 43
4.4.2 Economic costs of an OTC derivative 43
4.4.3 xVA terms 44
4.5 Summary 46
5 Netting, Close-out and Related Aspects 47
5.1 Introduction 47
5.1.1 Overview 47
5.1.2 The need for netting and close-out 47
5.1.3 Payment and close-out netting 48
5.2 Default, netting and close-out 49
5.2.1 The ISDA Master Agreement 49
5.2.2 Events of default 49
5.2.3 Payment netting 50
5.2.4 Close-out netting 51
5.2.5 Product coverage and set-off rights 52
5.2.6 Close-out amount 53
5.2.7 The impact of netting 55
5.3 Multilateral netting and trade compression 56
5.3.1 Overview 56
5.3.2 Multilateral netting 56
5.3.3 Bilateral compression services 57
5.3.4 The need for standardisation 58
5.3.5 Examples 58
5.4 Termination features and resets 61
5.4.1 Walkaway features 61
5.4.2 Termination events 62
5.4.3 Reset agreements 64
5.5 Summary 65
6 Collateral 67
6.1 Introduction 67
6.1.1 Rationale for collateral 67
6.1.2 Analogy with mortgages 69
6.1.3 Variation margin and initial margin 69
6.2 Collateral terms 70
6.2.1 The credit support annex (CSA) 70
6.2.2 Types of CSA 71
6.2.3 Threshold 73
6.2.4 Initial margin 74
6.2.5 Minimum transfer amount and rounding 74
6.2.6 Haircuts 75
6.2.7 Linkage to credit quality 77
6.2.8 Credit support amount 78
6.2.9 Impact of collateral on exposure 79
6.3 Mechanics of collateral 80
6.3.1 Collateral call frequency 80
6.3.2 Valuation agents, disputes and reconciliations 81
6.3.3 Title transfer and security interest 82
6.3.4 Coupons, dividends and remuneration 83
6.4 Collateral and funding 84
6.4.1 Overview 84
6.4.2 Substitution 84
6.4.3 Rehypothecation 85
6.4.4 Segregation 87
6.4.5 Variation and initial margin rehypothecation and segregation 88
6.4.6 Standard CSA 89
6.5 Collateral usage 90
6.5.1 Extent of collateralisation 90
6.5.2 Coverage of collateralisation 91
6.5.3 Collateral type 92
6.6 The risks of collateral 93
6.6.1 Collateral impact outside OTC derivatives markets 93
6.6.2 Market risk and the margin period of risk 94
6.6.3 Operational risk 96
6.6.4 Legal risk 97
6.6.5 Liquidity risk 98
6.6.6 Funding liquidity risk 98
6.7 Regulatory collateral requirements 100
6.7.1 Background 100
6.7.2 Covered entities 101
6.7.3 General requirements 102
6.7.4 Haircuts 104
6.7.5 Segregation and rehypothecation 105
6.7.6 Initial margin calculations 105
6.7.7 Standardised initial margin method (SIMM) 106
6.8 Converting counterparty risk into funding liquidity risk 107
6.9 Summary 108
7 Credit Exposure and Funding 109
7.1 Credit exposure 109
7.1.1 Definition 109
7.1.2 Bilateral exposure 110
7.1.3 The close-out amount 111
7.1.4 Exposure as a short option position 111
7.1.5 Future exposure 112
7.1.6 Comparison to value-at-risk 113
7.2 Metrics for exposure 114
7.2.1 Expected future value 114
7.2.2 Potential future exposure 115
7.2.3 Expected exposure 116
7.2.4 EE and PFE for a normal distribution 116
7.2.5 Maximum PFE 117
7.2.6 Expected positive exposure 117
7.2.7 Negative exposure 118
7.2.8 Effective expected positive exposure (EEPE) 118
7.3 Factors driving exposure 119
7.3.1 Loans and bonds 119
7.3.2 Future uncertainty 120
7.3.3 Periodic cashflows 120
7.3.4 Combination of profiles 125
7.3.5 Optionality 126
7.3.6 Credit derivatives 128
7.4 The impact of netting and collateral on exposure 129
7.4.1 The impact of netting on future exposure 129
7.4.2 Netting and the impact of correlation 130
7.4.3 Netting and relative MTM 132
7.4.4 Impact of collateral on exposure 133
7.5 Funding, rehypothecation and segregation 135
7.5.1 Funding costs and benefits 135
7.5.2 Differences between funding and credit exposure 136
7.5.3 Impact of segregation and rehypothecation 136
7.5.4 Impact of collateral on credit and funding exposure 138
7.5.5 Examples 140
7.6 Summary 141
8 Capital Requirements and Regulation 143
8.1 Background to credit risk capital 144
8.1.1 Standardised approach 144
8.1.2 Internal ratings-based approach (IRB) 144
8.1.3 Double default 145
8.1.4 Exposure at default (EAD) 146
8.1.5 Incurred CVA 148
8.2 Current exposure method (CEM) 148
8.2.1 Add-ons 148
8.2.2 Netting and collateral treatment 149
8.3 The internal model method (IMM) 151
8.3.1 Background 151
8.3.2 The alpha factor and EEPE 151
8.4 Standardised approach for counterparty credit risk (SA-CCR) 153
8.4.1 Background 153
8.4.2 Basic approach 154
8.4.3 Netting 155
8.4.4 Collateral 156
8.4.5 Overcollateralisation and negative MTM 157
8.5 Comparison of EAD methods 157
8.5.1 Impact of maturity 157
8.5.2 Collateral 158
8.5.3 Negative MTM 159
8.5.4 Initial margin and threshold 159
8.5.5 Netting 160
8.6 Basel III 161
8.6.1 Overview 161
8.6.2 Stressed EPE 163
8.6.3 Increased margin period of risk 163
8.6.4 Backtesting 164
8.6.5 Wrong-way risk 166
8.6.6 Stress testing 167
8.7 CVA capital charge 168
8.7.1 Rationale 168
8.7.2 Standardised formula 169
8.7.3 Advanced approach 171
8.7.4 Example 174
8.7.5 Criticisms 176
8.7.6 US implementation 178
8.7.7 The European exemptions 178
8.8 Other important regulatory requirements 180
8.8.1 Fundamental review of the trading book 180
8.8.2 Leverage ratio 180
8.8.3 Floors 181
8.8.4 Liquidity coverage ratio and net stable funding ratio 182
8.8.5 Prudent value 182
8.9 Summary 183
9 Counterparty Risk Intermediation 185
9.1 Introduction 185
9.2 SPVs, DPCs, CDPCs and monolines 187
9.2.1 Default remoteness and “too big to fail” 187
9.2.2 Special purpose vehicles 187
9.2.3 Derivative product companies 188
9.2.4 Monolines and CDPCs 190
9.3 Central counterparties 192
9.3.1 The clearing mandate 193
9.3.2 OTC clearing 193
9.3.3 The CCP landscape 195
9.3.4 CCP risk management 196
9.3.5 Comparing bilateral and central clearing 199
9.3.6 Advantages and disadvantages of CCPs 200
9.3.7 CCP capital charges 201
9.3.8 What central clearing means for xVA 202
9.4 Summary 203
10 Quantifying Credit Exposure 205
10.1 Introduction 205
10.2 Methods for quantifying credit exposure 205
10.2.1 Parametric approaches 205
10.2.2 Semi-analytical methods 206
10.2.3 Monte Carlo simulation 209
10.3 Monte Carlo methodology 210
10.3.1 Simulation model 210
10.3.2 Scenario generation 211
10.3.3 Revaluation 212
10.3.4 Aggregation 215
10.3.5 Post-processing 215
10.3.6 Extraction 216
10.4 Real-world or risk-neutral 216
10.4.1 Two fundamentally different approaches 216
10.4.2 Drift 219
10.4.3 Volatility 220
10.4.4 Correlation 221
10.4.5 Market practice 221
10.5 Model choice 222
10.5.1 Risk-neutral or real-world? 222
10.5.2 Level of complexity 224
10.5.3 General comments 226
10.5.4 Correlations 227
10.6 Examples 228
10.6.1 Data set 228
10.6.2 Exposures profiles 230
10.7 Allocating exposure 235
10.7.1 Simple two-transaction, single-period example 235
10.7.2 Incremental exposure 237
10.7.3 Marginal exposure 240
10.8 Summary 243
11 Exposure and the Impact of Collateral 245
11.1 Overview 245
11.1.1 General impact of collateral 245
11.1.2 Modelling approach 246
11.2 Margin period of risk 247
11.2.1 Setup 247
11.2.2 Amortisation 248
11.2.3 Conditionality 249
11.2.4 Disputes 249
11.2.5 MPR discretisation and cashflows 250
11.2.6 MPR modelling 251
11.3 Numerical examples 252
11.3.1 Collateral assumptions 252
11.3.2 Margin period of risk impact 253
11.3.3 Simple approximations 255
11.3.4 Discretisation and cashflows 256
11.3.5 Impact of threshold 257
11.3.6 Do two-way CSAs always reduce exposure? 258
11.3.7 Non-cash collateral 260
11.3.8 Collateral and funding liquidity risk 261
11.4 Initial margin 262
11.4.1 Impact of initial margin on exposure 262
11.4.2 Dynamic initial margins 263
11.4.3 Segregation and funding exposure 264
11.5 Summary 265
12 Default Probabilities, Credit Spreads and Funding Costs 267
12.1 Overview 267
12.2 Default probability 267
12.2.1 Real-world and risk-neutral 267
12.2.2 The move to risk-neutral 269
12.2.3 Defining risk-neutral default probabilities 271
12.2.4 Term structure 272
12.2.5 Loss given default 273
12.3 Credit curve mapping 275
12.3.1 Overview 275
12.3.2 The CDS market 276
12.3.3 Loss given default 278
12.3.4 General approach 278
12.4 Generic curve construction 280
12.4.1 General approach 280
12.4.2 Third party curves 281
12.4.3 Mapping approach 282
12.4.4 Cross-sectional approach 283
12.4.5 Hedging 284
12.5 Funding curves and capital costs 285
12.5.1 Background 285
12.5.2 Funding costs 286
12.5.3 Defining a funding curve 286
12.5.4 Cost of capital 288
12.6 Summary 289
13 Discounting and Collateral 291
13.1 Overview 291
13.2 Discounting 291
13.2.1 Introduction 291
13.2.2 OIS rates 292
13.2.3 The risk-free rate 293
13.2.4 Perfect collateralisation and discounting 294
13.2.5 OIS discounting 295
13.2.6 OIS methodology 296
13.3 Beyond perfect collateralisation 297
13.3.1 The push towards perfect collateralisation 297
13.3.2 The xVA terms 297
13.4 Collateral valuation adjustments 300
13.4.1 Overview 300
13.4.2 Collateral rate adjustments 300
13.4.3 Collateral optionality 303
13.4.4 Non-cash collateral 307
13.4.5 The end of ColVA 307
13.5 Summary 308
14 Credit and Debt Value Adjustments 309
14.1 Overview 309
14.2 Credit value adjustment 309
14.2.1 Why CVA is not straightforward 309
14.2.2 History of CVA 310
14.2.3 CVA formula 311
14.2.4 CVA example 312
14.2.5 CVA as a spread 313
14.2.6 Exposure and discounting 313
14.2.7 Risk-neutrality 314
14.2.8 CVA semi-analytical methods 314
14.3 Impact of credit assumptions 315
14.3.1 Credit spread impact 315
14.3.2 Recovery impact 316
14.4 CVA allocation and pricing 317
14.4.1 Netting and incremental CVA 317
14.4.2 Incremental CVA example 319
14.4.3 Marginal CVA 319
14.4.4 CVA as a spread 321
14.4.5 Numerical issues 321
14.5 CVA with collateral 323
14.5.1 Impact of margin period of risk 324
14.5.2 Thresholds and initial margins 324
14.6 Debt value adjustment 326
14.6.1 Overview 326
14.6.2 Accounting standards and DVA 326
14.6.3 DVA and pricing 327
14.6.4 Bilateral CVA formula 327
14.6.5 Close-out and default correlation 328
14.6.6 Example 330
14.6.7 DVA and own-debt 331
14.6.8 DVA in derivatives 332
14.7 Summary 334
15 Funding Value Adjustment 335
15.1 Funding and derivatives 335
15.1.1 Why there are funding costs and benefits 335
15.1.2 The nature of funding costs and benefits 336
15.1.3 Relationship to CVA and DVA 338
15.1.4 FVA in financial statements 339
15.2 Funding value adjustment 341
15.2.1 Intuitive definition 341
15.2.2 Discounting approach 343
15.2.3 More complex cases 345
15.2.4 Contingent FVA 347
15.2.5 Allocation of FVA 348
15.3 The practical use of FVA 349
15.3.1 Link to DVA 349
15.3.2 CVA/DVA/FVA framework 350
15.3.3 Is FVA really symmetric? 351
15.3.4 Defining the funding rate 351
15.3.5 The Hull and White and accounting arguments 352
15.3.6 Resolving the FVA debate 354
15.3.7 Remaining issues 355
15.3.8 Example 356
15.4 Summary 357
16 LCH/CME Basis and Capital Value Adjustments 359
16.1 Overview 359
16.2 Margin value adjustment 360
16.2.1 Rationale 360
16.2.2 IM profiles 361
16.2.3 MVA formula 364
16.2.4 Example 365
16.3 Capital value adjustment 366
16.3.1 Rationale 366
16.3.2 Capital profiles 368
16.3.3 Formula 369
16.3.4 Term structure behaviour 370
16.3.5 Behavioural aspects and regulatory change 371
16.3.6 Example 372
16.3.7 KVA and MVA 373
16.3.8 Overlaps and hedging 374
16.3.9 KVA reporting 375
16.4 Summary 375
17 Wrong-way Risk 377
17.1 Overview 377
17.2 Overview of wrong-way risk 377
17.2.1 Simple example 377
17.2.2 Classic example and empirical evidence 378
17.2.3 General and specific WWR 379
17.2.4 WWR challenges 380
17.3 Quantification of wrong-way risk 380
17.3.1 Wrong-way risk and CVA 380
17.3.2 Simple example 381
17.3.3 Wrong-way collateral 382
17.4 Wrong-way risk modelling approaches 383
17.4.1 Hazard rate approaches 383
17.4.2 Structural approaches 385
17.4.3 Parametric approach 387
17.4.4 Jump approaches 388
17.4.5 Credit derivatives 390
17.4.6 Wrong-way risk and collateral 391
17.4.7 Central clearing and wrong-way risk 393
17.5 Summary 395
18 xVA Management 397
18.1 Introduction 397
18.2 The role of an xVA desk 397
18.2.1 Motivation 397
18.2.2 Role 398
18.2.3 Profit centre or utility? 399
18.2.4 Operation and rollout 400
18.3 Hedging xVA 403
18.3.1 Motivation 403
18.3.2 xVA as an exotic option 403
18.3.3 Misalignment 404
18.3.4 Market risk 405
18.3.5 Credit, funding and capital hedging 406
18.3.6 Cross-gamma 406
18.3.7 P&L explain 407
18.3.8 Capital relief from hedges 407
18.3.9 Market practice and hedging 411
18.4 xVA systems 412
18.4.1 Overview 412
18.4.2 Optimisations 413
18.4.3 Shared or separate implementations 414
18.4.4 Internal and vendor systems 416
18.4.5 IMM approval 418
18.5 Summary 419
19 xVA Optimisation 421
19.1 Overview 421
19.2 Market practice 422
19.2.1 General approach to xVA 422
19.2.2 Totem 424
19.3 Examples 425
19.3.1 xVA assumptions 425
19.3.2 Uncollateralised 426
19.3.3 Off-market 427
19.3.4 Partially collateralised 428
19.3.5 One-way collateralised 429
19.3.6 Collateralised 430
19.3.7 Overcollateralised (initial margin) and backloading 430
19.4 Costs and the balance of xVA terms 433
19.4.1 Spectrum of transaction 433
19.4.2 Optimising xVA 434
19.4.3 Impact of credit quality and maturity 436
19.4.4 Summary 437
19.5 xVA optimisation 437
19.5.1 Intermediation 437
19.5.2 Restrikes 438
19.5.3 Uncollateralised to collateralised 439
19.5.4 Backloading to a CCP 440
19.6 Summary 441
20 The Future 443
Glossary 445
References 447
Index 457
