Title Details

1.1 The Discovery of Cells 2

1.2 Basic Properties of Cells 3

1.3 Two Fundamentally Different Classes of Cells 7

1.4 Viruses 23

2 The Chemical Basis of Life 32

2.1 Covalent Bonds 33

2.2 Noncovalent Bonds 34

2.3 Acids, Bases, and Buffers 39

2.4 The Nature of Biological Molecules 40

2.5 Four Types of Biological Molecules 42

2.6 The Formation of Complex Macromolecular Structures 79

3 Bioenergetics,Enzymes, and Metabolism 86

3.1 Bioenergetics 87

3.2 Enzymes as Biological Catalysts 94

3.3 Metabolism 108

4 The Structure and Function of the Plasma Membrane 120

4.1 An Overview of Membrane Functions 121

4.2 A Brief History of Studies on Plasma Membrane Structure 123

4.3 The Chemical Composition of Membranes 125

4.4 The Structure and Functions of Membrane Proteins 130

4.5 Membrane Lipids and Membrane Fluidity 138

4.6 The Dynamic Nature of the Plasma Membrane 140

4.7 The Movement of Substances Across Cell Membranes 147

4.8 Membrane Potentials and Nerve Impulses 164

5 Aerobic Respiration and the Mitochondrion 178

5.1 Mitochondrial Structure and Function 179

5.2 Oxidative Metabolism in the Mitochondrion 183

5.3 The Role of Mitochondria in the Formation of ATP 189

5.4 Translocation of Protons and the Establishment of a Proton-Motive Force 198

5.5 The Machinery for ATP Formation 199

5.6 Peroxisomes 206

6 Photosynthesis and the Chloroplast 211

6.1 Chloroplast Structure and Function 213

6.2 An Overview of Photosynthetic Metabolism 214

6.3 The Absorption of Light 216

6.4 Photosynthetic Units and Reaction Centers 218

6.5 Photophosphorylation 225

6.6 Carbon Dioxide Fixation and the Synthesis of Carbohydrate 226

7 Interactions Between Cells and Their Environment 235

7.1 The Extracellular Space 236

7.2 Interactions of Cells with Extracellular Materials 244

7.3 Interactions of Cells with Other Cells 250

7.4 Tight Junctions: Sealing The Extracellular Space 260

7.5 Gap Junctions and Plasmodesmata: Mediating Intercellular Communication 262

Plasmodesmata 265

7.6 Cell Walls 266

8 Cytoplasmic Membrane Systems: Structure, Function, and Membrane Trafficking 270

8.1 An Overview of the Endomembrane System 271

8.2 A Few Approaches to the Study of Endomembranes 273

8.3 The Endoplasmic Reticulum 279

8.4 The Golgi Complex 290

8.5 Types of Vesicle Transport and Their Functions 295

8.6 Lysosomes 303

8.7 Plant Cell Vacuoles 307

8.8 The Endocytic Pathway: Moving Membrane and Materials into the Cell Interior 308

8.9 Posttranslational Uptake of Proteins by Peroxisomes, Mitochondria, and Chloroplasts 316

9 The Cytoskeleton and Cell Motility 324

9.1 Overview of the Major Functions of the Cytoskeleton 325

9.2 The Study of the Cytoskeleton 326

9.3 Microtubules 330

9.4 Intermediate Filaments 354

9.5 Microfilaments 356

9.6 Muscle Contractility 364

9.7 Nonmuscle Motility 371

10 The Nature of the Gene and the Genome 386

10.1 The Concept of a Gene as a Unit of Inheritance 387

10.2 Chromosomes: The Physical Carriers of the Genes 388

10.3 The Chemical Nature of the Gene 393

10.4 The Structure of the Genome 398

10.5 The Stability of the Genome 406

10.6 Sequencing Genomes: The Footprints of Biological Evolution 411

11 Gene Expression: From Transcription to Translation 426

11.1 The Relationship between Genes, Proteins, and RNAs 427

11.2 An Overview of Transcription in Both Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells 429

11.3 Synthesis and Processing of Eukaryotic Ribosomal and Transfer RNAs 435

11.4 Synthesis and Processing of Eukaryotic Messenger RNAs 441

11.5 Small Regulatory RNAs and RNA Silencing Pathways 455

11.6 Encoding Genetic Information 461

11.7 Decoding the Codons: The Role of Transfer RNAs 464

11.8 Translating Genetic Information 468

12 Control of Gene Expression 483

12.1 Control of Gene Expression in Bacteria 484

12.2 Control of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes: Structure and Function of the Cell Nucleus 488

12.3 An Overview of Gene Regulation in Eukaryotes 512

12.4 Transcriptional Control 514

12.5 RNA Processing Control 533

12.6 Translational Control 536

12.7 Posttranslational Control: Determining Protein Stability 541

13 DNA Replication and Repair 545

13.1 DNA Replication 546

13.2 DNA Repair 564

13.3 Between Replication and Repair 568

14 Cellular Reproduction 572

14.1 The Cell Cycle 573

14.2 M Phase: Mitosis and Cytokinesis 581

14.3 Meiosis 602

15 Cell Signaling and Signal Transduction: Communication Between Cells 617

15.1 The Basic Elements of Cell Signaling Systems 618

15.2 A Survey of Extracellular Messengers and Their Receptors 621

15.3 G Protein-Coupled Receptors and Their Second Messengers 621

15.4 Protein-Tyrosine Phosphorylation as a Mechanism for Signal Transduction 636

15.5 The Role of Calcium as an Intracellular Messenger 648

15.6 Convergence, Divergence, and Cross-Talk Among Different Signaling Pathways 653

15.7 The Role of NO as an Intercellular Messenger 655

15.8 Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death) 656

16 Cancer 664

16.1 Basic Properties of a Cancer Cell 665

16.2 The Causes of Cancer 667

16.3 The Genetics of Cancer 669

16.4 New Strategies for Combating Cancer 687

17 The Immune Response 699

17.1 An Overview of the Immune Response 700

17.2 The Clonal Selection Theory as It Applies to B Cells 704

17.3 T Lymphocytes: Activation and Mechanism of Action 707

17.4 Selected Topics on the Cellular and Molecular Basis of Immunity 710

18 Techniques in Cell and Molecular Biology 732

18.1 The Light Microscope 733

18.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy 740

18.3 Scanning Electron and Atomic Force Microscopy 746

18.4 The Use of Radioisotopes 748

18.5 Cell Culture 749

18.6 The Fractionation of a Cell’s Contents by Differential Centrifugation 752

18.7 Isolation, Purification, and Fractionation of Proteins 752

18.8 Determining the Structure of Proteins and Multisubunit Complexes 758

18.9 Fractionation of Nucleic Acids 760

18.10 Nucleic Acid Hybridization 762

18.11 Chemical Synthesis of DNA 764

18.12 Recombinant DNA Technology 764

18.13 Enzymatic Amplification of DNA by PCR 769

18.14 DNA Sequencing 771

18.15 DNA Libraries 773

18.16 DNA Transfer into Eukaryotic Cells and Mammalian Embryos 775

18.17 Determining Eukaryotic Gene Function by Gene Elimination or Silencing 778

18.18 The Use of Antibodies 780

Glossary G-1

Additional Readings A-1

Index I-1